Wildfires, also referred to as wildland fires or brush fires, are unplanned, uncontrolled, and unsupervised fires that ignite in areas with vegetation and minimal development, including forests, grasslands, and brush. When these fires threaten buildings or other manmade structures, they are classified as wildland–urban interface (WUI) fires. The WUI is the area where development meets or intermingles with vegetated land.¹ In these zones, the combination of high fuel loads and encroaching development creates hazardous conditions, especially during periods of elevated temperatures, low humidity, and strong winds. 

Wildfires originate and spread through the interplay of three elements: fuel, weather, and topography. Fuels include natural vegetation, such as dry grasses, leaf litter, invasive species such as phragmites, mugwort, and combustible structures. Weather factors such as heat waves, drought conditions, and wind events can greatly increase the likelihood and severity of wildfire activity. Topography further influences fire behavior; fires tend to spread more rapidly uphill, as rising heat preheats and dries the land ahead of the flames. 

The type and density of fuel influence both the intensity and speed of wildfire spread. For example, dry grasses ignite easily and allow fires to spread quickly under windy conditions. More intense and sustained fires occur in areas with dry, dense vegetation, where flames can reach treetop canopies and wind can carry embers long distances. The heat from the fire dries out nearby vegetation, creating a feedback loop that accelerates the fire’s advance. 

Although natural causes such as lightning strikes can ignite wildfires, most are human caused. In NYC and surrounding regions, common ignition sources include discarded cigarettes and campfires. While NYC is not typically associated with large-scale wildfires, NYC has experienced numerous brush fires citywide. These incidents underscore the risk posed by even localized wildfires, especially in areas with WUI conditions such as Staten Island, Jamaica Bay, and Southeastern Queens. 

What is the Hazard

Severity

The severity of a wildfire is determined by the type and amount of fuel available, the weather conditions present, and how the fire interacts with the surrounding environment. Weather conditions, especially prolonged periods of low precipitation, high temperatures, low humidity, and strong winds, can cause fuel sources to dry out and accumulate, increasing the likelihood and intensity of wildfire outbreaks. 

The flammability of a given fuel source depends on its moisture content, chemical composition, and particle density. Materials that are resinous or oil-rich, and that have low moisture content due to drought or extreme heat, are particularly prone to burning quickly and intensely. Additionally, fuel particles must be spaced in such a way that they can ignite one another while still allowing sufficient airflow to sustain combustion. 

Wildfires vary in intensity and behavior and are generally categorized into three types based on how they spread: 

• Ground fires burn slowly beneath the surface, consuming organic material such as peat or decomposed leaves in the soil. These fires are often smoldering and persistent. 
• Surface fires burn above the ground and consume fuels such as fallen leaves, grasses, and downed branches. These fires are more visible and tend to spread faster than ground fires. 
• Crown fires are the most severe and dangerous type. They ignite the upper canopy of trees and can rapidly spread from treetop to treetop, especially under windy conditions. These fires can reach significant heights, produce large volumes of embers, and are the most difficult to control or suppress. 

When wildfires reach the built environment, they are assessed using an alarm assignment system. This system begins with a one-alarm designation and increases with the fire’s severity, complexity, and required emergency response. While there is no official maximum, fires are rarely assigned ratings above five alarms. 

Though NYC does not face the same scale of wildfire risk as other parts of the U.S., brush fires in areas with wildland–urban interface conditions such as in Staten Island, Jamaica Bay, and Southeastern Queens can grow rapidly and threaten public safety, especially under dry and windy conditions.²

Probability

Wildfires, most commonly in the form of brush fires, occur several times per year across New York City. While their frequency and recurrence interval vary by location, historical data indicate that wildfires are a persistent hazard. Based on past occurrences, it is likely that NYC will continue to experience these events in the future. 

Although wildfires can occur at any time of year, certain conditions make spring a period of elevated risk. As snow melts, it often leaves behind dry vegetation, such as dead leaves and brush, that becomes highly flammable, especially under windy conditions. In response to these heightened risks, the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYS DEC) enforces an annual statewide residential brush burning ban from March 16 through May 14. The seasonal ban, in effect from 2009, is intended to prevent wildfires and protect residents, firefighters, and natural resources during the most fire-prone time of year.³

Historical data show that most wildfire events (65.1 percent) occur during the first half of the calendar year. Spring accounts for the highest share, with 50.5 percent of recorded events, followed by winter with 14.6 percent. Fire activity dips to 12.6 percent in summer but rises again to 22.3 percent in the fall. These trends underscore the recurring nature of wildfire risk in NYC, even though large-scale wildfires are less common than in other parts of the United States. 

Location 

Certain areas of New York City face a greater risk from wildfires, particularly those with extensive vegetation or located within or adjacent to wildland–urban interface (WUI) zones.⁴ Staten Island is the most wildfire-vulnerable borough, especially along its eastern shore. This area has the highest percentage of wooded land in NYC and contains the largest concentration of WUI zones. 

Certain areas of New York City face a greater risk from wildfires, particularly those with extensive vegetation or located within or adjacent to wildland–urban interface (WUI) zones. Staten Island is the most wildfire-vulnerable borough, especially along its eastern shore, where large tracts of vegetated land—particularly stands of highly flammable phragmites—create conditions conducive to fire spread. Parts of southern Brooklyn, including Marine Park, and southern Queens also face elevated wildfire risk due to their proximity to similar vegetation, especially in and around Jamaica Bay.⁵⁶

While most wildfires in New York City are relatively small and rarely impact built structures, larger and more complex incidents do occur. FDNY classifies fires requiring a two-alarm or higher response as “all-hands” events, indicating greater operational demands and resource coordination, though not all of these incidents result in structural damage. Between 1996 and 2025, the city experienced 938 such brush fires. Staten Island reported the highest number, with 343 incidents, reflecting its extensive open space and vegetation coverage. Queens followed with 247 fires, Brooklyn with 193, the Bronx with 137, and Manhattan with 18. 

Although major wildfires do not occur within the City’s limits, they can still create indirect hazards. Large-scale fires in Canada, New Jersey, the West Coast, and other regions have periodically sent smoke into the city. In recent years, the Canadian wildfire season, impacted NYC when skies turned orange and fine particulate matter reached hazardous levels. These transboundary smoke events are difficult to predict, depending on the scale of the fires, wind patterns, and conditions. Additionally, as drought conditions intensify in wildfire-prone areas, the frequency and severity of smoke impacts may increase, underscoring the importance of monitoring and preparedness. 

Community Wildfire Protection Plan

In 2012, the New York City Department of Parks & Recreation (NYC Parks), in collaboration with the New York City Department of Environmental Protection (DEP), the Fire Department of the City of New York (FDNY), the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYS DEC), and the United States National Park Service (NPS), developed a Community Wildfire Protection Plan (CWPP) for Staten Island. The plan focuses on mitigating wildfire risks along the borough’s eastern shoreline and outlines strategies to protect nearby residents, homes, infrastructure, and natural resources. Although the CWPP itself has not been formally updated, NYC Parks has received baseline annual funding to conduct vegetation management in these areas, including the regular mowing of phragmites at the wildland–urban interface, which has significantly reduced fire incidence over the past decade. 

The Staten Island CWPP encompasses an area bounded to the north and east by Lower New York Bay, to the south by Great Kills Park, and to the west by Maryland Avenue and Hylan Boulevard. It includes the communities of Oakwood Beach, Midland Beach, South Beach, Old Town, Grasmere, Arrochar, and Shore Acres—home to approximately 51,200 residents as of 2012, when the last Staten Island CWPP report was released.⁷

Select Significant Wildfires in New York City (2008 to 2024) 

Date	Location	Description
7/8/2008	Staten Island	Wildfire near Hopkins Avenue and Hylan Boulevard
9/15/2008	Staten Island	Two large wildfires burn over 40 acres
3/23/2009	Staten Island	Wildfire near Richard Avenue and Hylan Boulevard
3/24/2009	Staten Island	Two-alarm wildfire near 2900 Veterans Road
3/25/2009	Bronx	Wildfire breaks out near NYPD shooting range at Rodman’s Neck; no injuries; operations not interrupted
4/4/2009	Brooklyn	Two-alarm wildfire near 77-75 Flatbush Avenue
4/12/2009	Staten Island	Large wildfire near Kissam Avenue spreads to three adjacent structures
4/16/2009	Queens	Wildfire in Howard Beach area
1/12/2010	Queens/Brooklyn	Two-alarm wildfire in Gateway National Park
6/30/2010	Queens	Wildfire in Howard Beach area
7/18/2010	Queens	Wildfire near 165th Avenue and 83rd Street in Howard Beach
9/8/2010	Staten Island	Wildfire near Woodrow Road and Alexander Avenue
9/9/2010	Staten Island	Wildfire in Great Kills Park
10/16/2010	Staten Island	Wildfire near Great Kills Park
10/23/2010	Staten Island	Large wildfire near Forest Hill Road and Richmond Avenue
11/12/2010	Staten Island	Five-alarm, 100-acre wildfire near Kissam Avenue and Mill Road; spread to nearby garage and delayed traffic
12/9/2010	Staten Island	Large wildfire near Richmond Hill Road and Old Mill Road
3/28/2011	Staten Island	Wildfire in Siedenburg Park
4/9/2012	Staten Island	Wildfires across Staten Island, including Great Kills Park and a five-alarm fire above former Fresh Kills landfill
09/22/2020	Brooklyn	Brush fire at Bay 44th Street & Shore Parkway.
02/20/2023	Brooklyn	Brush fire.
11/01/2024 – 11/14/2024	Citywide	FDNY responded to 271 brush fires across all five boroughs, the highest number recorded in a two-week period in NYC history, due to historically dry conditions.

What is the Risk

Natural Environment

Wildfires can have both beneficial and harmful impacts on the natural environment, depending on their intensity, frequency, and the ecological context in which they occur. In many ecosystems, fire has played a vital role in maintaining ecological health and resilience. Periodic, low-intensity fires can help control insect pests, reduce the spread of invasive plant species, and return nutrients to the soil. These fires also clear dense undergrowth, creating space and sunlight for native plants to regenerate. Some plant species rely on fire for reproduction, with certain seeds requiring heat to germinate. Additionally, burned trees and downed logs can provide habitat for birds, mammals, and insects, contributing to biodiversity. 

However, high-intensity wildfires can be ecologically destructive. Fires that burn too hot or too fast may destroy large stands of trees, sterilize soil, and eliminate the organic debris that protects seedlings and nourishes new growth. These intense events can severely damage or eliminate critical habitat for native species and may take years—or decades—for ecosystems to recover. 

In ecosystems that historically depended on periodic fire, the absence of regular low-intensity burning can lead to an overaccumulation of fuel. When this excess vegetation ignites under dry and windy conditions, it can result in more severe and uncontrollable wildfires. To mitigate this risk and support ecological health, land managers sometimes use prescribed or controlled burns. These intentionally set, carefully managed fires replicate natural fire cycles and help reduce the fuel loads that could otherwise contribute to catastrophic wildfires. In areas where controlled burns are impractical or inappropriate—such as in dense urban environments—repeated mowing of fire-prone vegetation is an alternative management strategy to reduce fuel loads, particularly at the wildland–urban interface (WUI). 

In New York City, fire-adapted ecosystems are found in portions of Staten Island, the Rockaways, and areas surrounding Jamaica Bay. Wildfires in these and other vegetated areas, including managed parklands not adapted to regular burning, have occurred during periods of drought and elevated wildfire risk. In 2023 and 2024, for example, small fires in Prospect Park and other green spaces damaged tree canopy and ground cover, disrupted recreational access, and placed additional strain on City resources. Managing wildfire risk in these areas requires balancing ecological needs with community safety. 

Social Environment

Wildfires in New York City, while typically limited in scope, can still pose significant risks to people, particularly to firefighters and emergency responders, who are directly exposed to hazardous conditions during response operations. These individuals face increased danger when fires spread rapidly, change direction unexpectedly, or occur in areas with difficult terrain or limited access. 

When wildfires encroach on populated areas, residents may also be at risk, especially those who choose not to evacuate or are unable to do so. Fires that ignite and spread quickly may allow little or no advance warning, limiting time for protective actions or evacuation. In such cases, individuals with limited mobility, as well as those who require assistance to evacuate, may be disproportionately affected. 

Even when fires do not directly threaten buildings or infrastructure, secondary health impacts can pose serious threats to public well-being. Smoke and poor air quality can affect neighborhoods in and beyond the immediate fire zone. Populations with respiratory conditions such as asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) may be especially vulnerable, as are older adults and young children. Exposure to wildfire smoke may also exacerbate cardiovascular conditions and increase the need for emergency medical care. 

Public health impacts may be further compounded in areas with limited access to healthcare, poor housing conditions, or high levels of socioeconomic disadvantage. In these contexts, wildfires can amplify pre-existing vulnerabilities and strain community resilience. 

Built Environment 

Although wildfires in New York City are generally smaller in scale than those seen in other parts of the United States, they still have the potential to cause significant damage to the built environment—particularly in areas where development borders vegetated open space. Staten Island is especially at risk due to the extent of wildland–urban interface (WUI) conditions and the presence of large, contiguous natural areas adjacent to residential neighborhoods and critical infrastructure. 

Structures constructed of wood or other combustible materials are particularly vulnerable, especially when they have wooden exteriors. These materials can ignite quickly when windborne embers from nearby brush fires reach them. Compared to typical building fires, wildfires can be more difficult to contain due to their size, the abundance of natural fuel, and weather conditions such as high winds and low humidity. 

Utilities and infrastructure systems are also at risk. Wildfires can damage transportation corridors, overhead power lines, and telecommunications infrastructure, potentially leading to disruptions in service. In areas dominated by phragmites, such as the fire-prone zones of Staten Island, these risks are heightened due to the grasses’ flammability and the proximity of overhead electric distribution systems. 

The New York City Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) maintains a wastewater treatment plant located in the southwest portion of the Oakwood Beach watershed. This facility may also be exposed to wildfire risk, depending on fire conditions and wind direction. 

Within the CWPP area on Staten Island, the built environment includes a mix of residential homes, light commercial zones, open space, and light industrial or manufacturing uses. The area also contains numerous sensitive and critical facilities, including: 

• 13 schools 
• 11 daycare facilities 
• 12 historical sites 
• One hospital 
• One psychiatric facility 

Consolidated Edison (Con Edison) operates substantial utility infrastructure within the Community Wildfire Protection Plan (CWPP) area. While only one of the four electric substations in the zone is close enough to be considered at risk from wildfire, the utility’s distribution system is primarily overhead and supported by wooden poles—making it vulnerable in vegetated areas. 

Future Environment 

Wildfires are expected to remain a recurring hazard in New York City, particularly in areas with wildland–urban interface conditions such as Staten Island, southern Queens, and parts of Brooklyn. While most fires are relatively small and localized, the potential for more intense events may increase under future environmental and climate conditions. 

Wildfires are closely linked to weather patterns, and climate change may influence their frequency, severity, and duration. Projected increases in temperature, reduced precipitation during certain seasons, and extended periods of drought may create conditions more favorable for fire ignition and spread. While most research and observed impacts have focused on the Western United States—where wildfire seasons are growing in length and intensity—there is growing concern that similar trends could emerge in the Northeast under certain scenarios. 

At present, the available data suggests that wildfires are unlikely to become a major hazard of concern in New York State under current climate projections. However, localized impacts, especially in fire-prone areas with dense vegetation or vulnerable infrastructure, could worsen as conditions change. Increased development in high-risk areas and a lack of adequate buffer zones between wooded areas and built infrastructure may further increase future wildfire vulnerability. 

Adaptation and land management practices, including strategic fuel reduction, the expansion of defensible space, and the incorporation of wildfire risk into land-use planning, will play an important role in limiting future impacts. 

How to Manage the Risk 

Preparedness 

Community Outreach and Education 

Outreach programs can be used to: 1) inform residents of risks to life, health, and safety; 2) provide technical assistance for risk-reduction measures; and 3) support access to funding for mitigation actions. 

Defensible Space 

The risk of structure ignition can be reduced by maintaining defensible space around homes. According to the National Fire Protection Association, the “Immediate Zone” (0–5 feet from a structure) should be free of all combustible materials, including mulch, vegetation, and wooden fences. The “Intermediate Zone” (5–30 feet) should be hardened by clearing vegetation near propane tanks, removing growth from beneath trees, and spacing vegetation to prevent flame spread. The “Extended Zone” (30–100 or 200 feet) should further interrupt fire pathways by minimizing flammable material density. 

Evacuation 

Residents should be trained in proper evacuation procedures, such as wearing protective clothing (e.g., long sleeves, gloves, and sturdy shoes), bringing a disaster supplies kit, and choosing a route away from active fire zones. 

Evacuation procedures should still be understood and practiced, especially in areas near parks, greenways, and natural areas. 

Prepare Before a Wildfire Threat 

Create a Wildfire Evacuation Plan 

• Develop a plan that includes:
  • A family communication plan 
  • Multiple evacuation routes 
  • Emergency go-bags with essential supplies for each household member 
  • Plans for evacuating with pets, service animals and essential documents 

Sign Up for Alerts 

• Enroll in Notify NYC to receive real-time alerts, including fire conditions and air quality advisories. 
• Monitor the National Weather Service and local news for Red Flag Warnings or Air Quality Index (AQI) alerts. 

During a Wildfire or Smoke Event 

• Evacuate If Instructed
  • Follow instructions from FDNY, NYPD, NYC Emergency Management, or other local authorities. 
  • Evacuate immediately if told to do so, do not wait. 
  • Wear protective clothing (e.g., long sleeves, gloves, sturdy shoes) and bring your go-bag.
• If You Cannot Evacuate
  • Call 9-1-1 with your exact location; emergency response may be delayed. 
  • Shelter in a closed room with a portable air cleaner.
  • Use an N95 mask to reduce smoke inhalation. 

Home hardening 

Since most homes ignite from embers rather than direct flame contact, mitigation efforts focus on sealing entry points. Measures include using Class A roofing materials, clearing debris from gutters and roofs, covering soffits and eaves with noncombustible mesh screens, replacing wooden porches, and using dual-pane tempered glass in windows. 

Public Education 

Education campaigns can promote ember-resistant building materials, safe vegetation management practices, and awareness of wildfire-related hazards from smoking and recreational fires. 

Site Inspections and Studies 

Inspections can identify hazardous vegetation around critical facilities and inform risk mitigation strategies. In NYC, this typically involves the regular mowing and maintenance of fire-prone vegetation, particularly in areas dominated by invasive species such as phragmites. These efforts reduce fuel loads near sensitive sites and help limit the potential for fire spread in and around the wildland–urban interface. 

Window and Vent Coverings 

Building retrofits should include multi-pane or tempered-glass windows, enclosed bay areas, and vent screens with one-eighth-inch metal mesh to block embers. 

Water Supplies 

Homes and critical facilities should maintain access to water supplies for firefighting. This includes ponds, cisterns, hydrants, and freeze-resistant outdoor spigots. Portable gas-powered pumps can provide backup if electric service fails. 

Regulatory Measures 

Building Codes 

New York City enforces stringent building codes⁸ to enhance fire resistance, particularly in high-risk zones like Staten Island’s Community Wildfire Protection Plan (CWPP) area.  

Key provisions include: 

• Roofing Materials: The NYC Building Code mandates the use of Class A or B fire-resistant roofing materials for most buildings, significantly reducing the risk of ignition from airborne embers. ​ 
• Exterior Walls and Siding: Combustible exterior wall coverings are restricted. In buildings of Type I, II, III, and IV construction, such materials are limited to 10% of the wall surface per story and are prohibited within 5 feet of property lines. ​ 
• Balconies and Projections: Combustible materials are not permitted on exterior balconies or projections, reducing potential fire spread in multi-story buildings. ​ 

In Staten Island’s CWPP area, these codes are actively enforced to mitigate wildfire risks. The NYC Department of Buildings and FDNY collaborate to ensure compliance, particularly focusing on the use of non-combustible materials in new constructions and renovations. ​ 

For existing structures, the FDNY advises homeowners to implement fire-resistant measures, such as installing metal mesh screens over vents to prevent ember intrusion and maintaining defensible space by clearing dry vegetation within 10 feet of buildings, as required by the NYC Fire Code.⁹

These combined efforts underscore the City’s commitment to enhancing fire safety through rigorous building standards and proactive community engagement. 

Burning Restriction 

Local regulations may prohibit open burning or require permits for activities such as campfires, controlled burns, grilling in parks, or yard waste disposal. 

Statewide and local regulations prohibit open burning and/or require permits for activities such as campfires, controlled burns, grilling in parks, or yard waste disposal. 

In response to a two-alarm forest fire in Prospect Park in November 2024 and ongoing wildfires in New Jersey, the city has taken proactive steps to reduce fire risk during an extended period of historically dry weather.  

To help prevent fires, New Yorkers are urged to follow these important guidelines: 

• Be cautious with heat-producing construction work. Avoid welding or similar high-heat activities near dry vegetation such as grass, brush, or leaves. 
• Dispose of yard waste properly. Leaves and bundled yard debris can accelerate fires; set them out on your scheduled recycling day. To report clogged catch basins, call 311 for cleanup by the NYC Department of Environmental Protection. 
• Maintain clear property perimeters. Keep sidewalks and areas around homes or businesses free of dry leaves, litter, and brush to lower fire risk. 
• Never burn trash. Burning household waste is illegal across New York State, including in wood stoves, fireplaces, or outdoor wood boilers. 
• Prohibited burning activities include:
  • Burning refuse, trash, tires, or solid waste (even in burn barrels or similar devices). 
  • Burning loose leaves or leaf piles. 
  • Burning pressure or chemically treated, painted, stained, or composite wood (e.g., plywood, particle board). 

Nature-Based Strategies 

Nature-based strategies reduce wildfire risk while enhancing biodiversity and ecosystem resilience. In NYC, these strategies are tailored to the urban landscape and typically emphasize vegetation management and ecological restoration. Approaches include: 

• Phragmites Control: Regular mowing of invasive phragmites, especially in high-risk areas like Staten Island and Jamaica Bay, helps reduce flammable fuel loads. These efforts are often focused along the wildland–urban interface to protect adjacent communities and infrastructure. 
• Native Vegetation Maintenance: Replacing invasive species with low-flammability native plantings can improve fire resistance and ecological function. In some cases, site restoration includes reestablishing native grasses, shrubs, and groundcover that are less prone to ignition. 
• Wetland and Coastal Restoration: Restoring wetlands and natural hydrology, especially in low-lying areas of southern Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island, can help maintain moisture-rich habitats that naturally resist wildfire spread while providing co-benefits such as stormwater management and habitat conservation. 

Strategic landscape management—including wetland restoration, prescribed burning, and native vegetation maintenance—can reduce wildfire risk while supporting biodiversity and environmental resilience. 

Response and Recovery 

Wildfire-Specific Training for First Responders 

First responders in New York State receive specialized training to manage brush and wildland fires. The New York Wildfire and Incident Management Academy (NYWIMA) offers foundational courses—NWCG S-130 Basic Wildland Firefighter Training and S-190 Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior—to fire service personnel, including those from the FDNY. Since its creation in 1997, NYWIMA has trained over 7,300 firefighters and incident responders under National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) and National Incident Management System (NIMS) standards.¹⁰

FDNY Brush Fire Task Force 

In response to record brush fire activity in late 2024, FDNY established its first-ever Brush Fire Task Force, comprising fire marshals, inspectors, drone operators, and tactical units. As part of this initiative, FDNY has upgraded its training programs to emphasize wildland fire tactics, lightweight wildland PPE, drone deployments in brush fire scenarios, and interagency coordination using Incident Command System (ICS) protocols.¹¹

1. Federal Emergency Management Agency. (n.d.). Wildland Urban Interface (WUI) awareness. FEMA GIS Hub. Retrieved June 24, 2025, from https://gis-fema.hub.arcgis.com/pages/wui-awareness ↩︎
2. Radeloff, Volker C.; Helmers, David P.; Mockrin, Miranda H.; Carlson, Amanda R.; Hawbaker, Todd J.; Martinuzzi, Sebastián. 2023. The 1990-2020 wildland-urban interface of the conterminous United States – geospatial data. 4th Edition. Fort Collins, CO: Forest Service Research Data Archive. https://doi.org/10.2737/RDS-2015-0012-4 ↩︎
3. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. (2025, March). DEC reminds New Yorkers statewide residential brush burning prohibition starts March 16. Retrieved June 24, 2025, from https://dec.ny.gov/news/press-releases/2025/3/dec-reminds-new-yorkers-statewide-residential-brush-burning-prohibition-starts-march-16 ↩︎
4. Federal Emergency Management Agency. (n.d.). Wildland Urban Interface (WUI) awareness. FEMA GIS Hub. Retrieved June 24, 2025, from https://gis-fema.hub.arcgis.com/pages/wui-awareness ↩︎
5. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New York District. (2020, June). East Rockaway Inlet to Jamaica Bay, New York: Final report – Atlantic Coast of New York, Rockaway Inlet to Norton Point, Reformulation Study. Retrieved June 24, 2025, from https://www.nan.usace.army.mil/Portals/37/docs/civilworks/projects/ny/coast/Rockaway/2020%20Update%20Report/Rock%20Jam%20Bay%20Final%20Report.pdf?ver=2020-06-01-154654-773 ↩︎
6. New York City Department of Parks & Recreation. (2012). Community Wildfire Protection Plan: Staten Island East Shore. Retrieved June 24, 2025, from https://www.nycgovparks.org/pagefiles/47/CWPP.pdf ↩︎
7. New York City Department of Parks & Recreation. (2012). Community Wildfire Protection Plan: Staten Island East Shore. Retrieved June 24, 2025, from https://www.nycgovparks.org/pagefiles/47/CWPP.pdf   ↩︎
8. New York City Department of Buildings. (2022). Combustible materials and buildings in the WUI. Retrieved June 24, 2025, from https://www.nyc.gov/assets/buildings/pdf/presentations/2022bsls/combustible.pdf ↩︎
9. Fire Department of the City of New York. (n.d.). New York City Fire Code: Local Law. Retrieved June 24, 2025, from https://www.nyc.gov/assets/fdny/downloads/pdf/codes/fire-code-local-law.pdf  ↩︎
10. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. (n.d.). New York Wildfire and Incident Management Academy (NYWIMA). New York State Division of Homeland Security and Emergency Services. Retrieved June 24, 2025, from https://pb.state.ny.us/our-work/ny-wildfire-and-incident-management-academy-nywima/nywima/ny-wildfire-and-incident-management-academy/ ↩︎
11. Fire Department of the City of New York. (2024, November 14). Fire Commissioner Robert S. Tucker announces the department’s first-ever Brush Fire Task Force. NYC.gov. Retrieved June 24, 2025, from https://www.nyc.gov/site/fdny/news/047-24/fire-commissioner-robert-s-tucker-the-department-s-first-ever-brush-fire-task-force#/0  ↩︎